A Brief History of Antarctic Exploration

A Brief History of Antarctic Exploration

Text and images by David Sinclair, Founder and General Manager, Islands & Ice Travel

Introduction

Covering approximately 14 million square kilometres and containing 90% of the world’s ice, Antarctica, the Earth’s southernmost continent remained unknown to human civilization until the early 19th century. The history of Antarctic exploration spans over two centuries, evolving from speculative searches for a mythical southern continent to sophisticated scientific research programs that continue today. This journey encompasses tales of extraordinary courage, devastating tragedy, international competition, and ultimately, unprecedented scientific cooperation.

The story of Antarctic exploration unfolds in distinct phases: the initial discovery and circumnavigation, the era of commercial exploitation through sealing and whaling, the legendary “Heroic Age” of scientific and geographical exploration, the establishment of international governance through the Antarctic Treaty, and the modern era of comprehensive scientific research. 

Early Theoretical Foundations and Captain Cook’s Voyages

Long before Antarctica was discovered, ancient geographers theorized about its existence. The concept of Terra Australis Incognita—the “Unknown Southern Land”—emerged from classical Greek geography, with scholars like Ptolemy proposing that a massive southern continent must exist to balance the known landmasses of the Northern Hemisphere. This theoretical foundation drove centuries of exploration, as navigators sought to locate and map this mysterious southern realm.

Captain James Cook’s three voyages between 1768 and 1779 fundamentally transformed understanding of the Southern Ocean and set the stage for Antarctica’s eventual discovery. During his second voyage (1772-1775), Cook commanded HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure in the first circumnavigation of Antarctica, though he never sighted the continent itself. Cook’s expedition was revolutionary in its systematic approach to exploring the far southern latitudes, crossing the Antarctic Circle three times and reaching as far south as 71° 10’S early in 1774.

Cook’s voyages yielded several crucial discoveries that would prove essential for future Antarctic exploration. He discovered and named South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, providing the first detailed descriptions of sub-Antarctic environments. His observations of massive icebergs and ice fields convinced him that if land existed in the far south, it would be perpetually frozen and of little practical value. Famously, Cook declared that no one would ever venture farther south than he had, stating that such lands would be “a country doomed by Nature never once to feel the warmth of the Sun’s rays, but to lie for ever buried under everlasting snow and ice.”

Despite Cook’s pessimistic assessment, his voyages provided invaluable navigational data and demonstrated that the Southern Ocean could be traversed safely with proper preparation and skilled seamanship. His detailed charts, observations of wind patterns, and documentation of ice conditions became essential references for subsequent expeditions. Moreover, Cook’s reports of abundant seal populations in sub-Antarctic waters would soon attract commercial interests that would drive the next phase of southern exploration.

The scientific methodology Cook employed—systematic observation, accurate mapping, and detailed record-keeping—established standards that would influence polar exploration for generations. His use of chronometers for accurate longitude determination and his attention to crew health through dietary improvements set precedents for managing long voyages in harsh conditions. These innovations would prove crucial as explorers pushed deeper into the dangerous waters surrounding Antarctica.

The First Sightings: Bellingshausen and the Discovery of Antarctica

The actual discovery of Antarctica occurred during a remarkable period of near-simultaneous exploration by expeditions from three different nations. Between January 27 and 30, 1820, two separate expeditions may have sighted the Antarctic continent, making the question of who first discovered Antarctica a subject of enduring historical debate.

The Russian expedition led by Captain Fabian von Bellingshausen aboard the ships Vostok and Mirny holds the strongest claim to the first confirmed sighting of Antarctica. On 27 or 28 January, 1820, at 69°21’S, 2°14’W, Bellingshausen recorded seeing “an ice shore of extreme height” that extended beyond the horizon. This sighting, in what is now known as the Fimbul Ice Shelf, represents the first recorded observation of the Antarctic continent. Bellingshausen’s expedition was part of a broader Russian effort to explore the world’s oceans and establish Russia’s presence in global maritime exploration.

Three days after Bellingshausen’s sighting, on January 30, 1820, Edward Bransfield of the Royal Navy, commanding HMS Williams, sighted the Trinity Peninsula, the northernmost tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. Bransfield’s expedition was originally tasked with investigating the newly discovered South Shetland Islands, but strong currents carried his ship southward, leading to this historic encounter with the Antarctic mainland.

The third claimant to first discovery is American sealer Nathaniel Palmer (for whom the US Palmer Station is named), who allegedly sighted Antarctica from Neptune’s Window, a distinct landmark on Deception Island that faces SE towards the Trinity Peninsula, the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. 

Bellingshausen’s expedition was particularly remarkable for its scientific rigour and comprehensive scope. Unlike many contemporary voyages focused primarily on territorial claims or commercial opportunities, the Russian expedition conducted systematic observations of oceanography, meteorology, and natural history. Bellingshausen’s team discovered and named numerous islands, including Peter I Island and Alexander Island, and completed a circumnavigation of Antarctica.

The Russian expedition’s scientific contributions extended beyond geographical discovery. They collected extensive data on ice formations, ocean currents, and marine life, providing the first systematic study of Antarctic environmental conditions. Bellingshausen’s detailed logs and charts would prove invaluable to subsequent explorers, and his approach to Antarctic exploration emphasized scientific inquiry rather than purely nationalistic goals.

The Era of Commercial Exploitation: Sealing and Whaling

The discovery of Antarctica coincided with a period of intense commercial interest in marine resources, particularly seals and whales. The decades following 1820 saw a rapid expansion of sealing and whaling operations into Antarctic waters, driven by high demand for seal oil, whale oil, and other marine products in industrializing nations. This commercial phase of Antarctic history, while often destructive to wildlife populations, played a crucial role in mapping the continent’s coastline and establishing permanent human presence in the region.

Sealing operations began almost immediately after the discovery of the South Shetland Islands in 1819. American, British, and other sealers quickly established bases throughout the sub-Antarctic islands, pursuing fur seals and elephant seals with devastating efficiency. Within just a few years, some seal populations were reduced to near extinction, demonstrating both the abundance of Antarctic wildlife and the unsustainable nature of unregulated commercial exploitation.

The sealing industry contributed significantly to geographical knowledge of Antarctica. Sealers, motivated by profit rather than scientific inquiry, nevertheless explored coastlines, identified landing sites, and mapped previously unknown territories. American sealers were particularly active in exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region, with many geographical features bearing names given by these early commercial explorers. 

Whaling operations in Antarctic waters began somewhat later than sealing but eventually became far more significant economically and scientifically. The development of factory ships in the late 19th century revolutionized whaling by allowing processing to occur at sea, eliminating the need for shore-based stations and enabling operations in the remote waters surrounding Antarctica. Norwegian whalers, led by pioneers like Carl Larsen, established the first permanent whaling stations in the region, including the famed whaling settlement of Grytviken on South Georgia Island.

The whaling industry’s impact on Antarctic exploration extended beyond mere commercial activity. Whaling ships served as platforms for scientific research, carrying naturalists and researchers who made important contributions to understanding Antarctic biology and oceanography. The industry also drove technological innovations in polar navigation, ice-strengthened ship design, and cold-weather operations that would benefit later scientific expeditions.

Larsen’s contributions exemplify the intersection of commercial and scientific interests in Antarctic exploration. Beyond his whaling operations, Larsen conducted extensive surveys of Antarctic waters, discovered numerous previously unknown islands, and collected valuable scientific specimens. His work in the Weddell Sea region provided crucial geographical information and demonstrated the feasibility of extended operations in Antarctic waters.  In December 1893 he was the first to ski in Antarctica, on what is today known as the Larsen Ice Shelf.

The whaling industry also established some of the first semi-permanent settlements in Antarctica, with stations requiring year-round maintenance and periodic human presence. These stations served as bases for further exploration and provided emergency refuges for other expeditions. The infrastructure developed for whaling operations—harbours, landing sites, storage facilities—would later prove valuable for expeditions during the Heroic Age. However, the commercial exploitation of Antarctic resources also revealed the environmental vulnerability of polar ecosystems. The rapid depletion of seal populations served as an early warning about the need for conservation measures, while the massive scale of whaling operations raised concerns about the sustainability of marine resource extraction. These early conservation concerns would eventually contribute to the development of international agreements governing Antarctic activities.

The sealing and whaling era established important precedents for Antarctic operations: the need for international cooperation in resource management, the value of Antarctic territories for scientific research, and the importance of environmental protection. These lessons would influence later policy decisions, including the development of the Antarctic Treaty System.

The Heroic Age: Scientific Expeditions and Polar Achievement

The period from approximately 1897 to 1922, known as the “Heroic Age” of Antarctic exploration, represents the most celebrated and romanticized era in the continent’s history. This period was characterized by large-scale, nationally sponsored expeditions that combined geographical exploration, scientific research, and attempts to reach the South Pole. The Heroic Age produced legendary figures whose names remain synonymous with polar exploration: Ernest Shackleton, Robert Falcon Scott, Roald Amundsen, and Douglas Mawson.

The Heroic Age began with the Belgian Antarctic Expedition (1897-1899), led by Adrien de Gerlache aboard the ship Belgica. This expedition was significant as the first to overwinter in Antarctica, providing crucial insights into the challenges of surviving Antarctic conditions. The international crew included future polar legends Roald Amundsen and Frederick Cook, both of whom gained invaluable experience that would inform their later expeditions. The Belgica expedition’s enforced wintering when trapped in pack ice demonstrated both the dangers of Antarctic exploration and the possibility of human survival in extreme polar conditions.

The British National Antarctic Expedition (1901-1904), led by Robert Falcon Scott aboard the Discovery, marked the beginning of the systematic scientific exploration of Antarctica. Scott’s expedition established a base at McMurdo Sound (the ‘Discovery Hut’) and conducted extensive scientific research while attempting to reach the South Pole. Although the polar attempt fell short, reaching only 82°17’S, the expedition made significant geographical discoveries.The scientific program was comprehensive, including meteorology, geology, biology, and glaciology studies that established Antarctica as a unique laboratory for scientific research.

Ernest Shackleton’s Nimrod Expedition (1907-1909) pushed even farther south, reaching 88°23’S, just 97 miles from the South Pole. Shackleton’s achievement demonstrated that the pole was attainable with proper planning and execution, setting the stage for the dramatic race that would follow. The Nimrod expedition also achieved several other significant firsts: Edgeworth David and Douglas Mawson reached the South Magnetic Pole, and the expedition conducted the first extensive exploration of the Transantarctic Mountains.

The race to the South Pole reached its climax during 1911-1912 with competing expeditions led by Roald Amundsen and Robert Falcon Scott. Amundsen’s Norwegian expedition, characterized by meticulous planning, expert use of dog sledges, and deep understanding of polar travel techniques learned from Arctic peoples, reached the South Pole on December 14, 1911. Scott’s British expedition, arriving at the pole on January 17, 1912, found Amundsen’s flag already planted there. The tragic fate of Scott’s polar party, who perished during their return journey, created one of exploration’s most enduring legends.

The scientific contributions of Scott’s Terra Nova Expedition (1910-1913) were substantial despite the tragic loss of the polar party. The expedition’s scientific program was the most comprehensive yet undertaken in Antarctica, including pioneering work in glaciology, meteorology, and biology. The discovery of fossils proving Antarctica’s ancient tropical climate and the collection of 35 pounds of geological specimens by Scott’s polar party, even as they faced death, demonstrated the expedition’s commitment to scientific advancement.

Douglas Mawson’s Australasian Antarctic Expedition (1911-1914) focused on scientific exploration rather than pole-seeking, conducting systematic research across previously unexplored regions of the continent. Mawson’s expedition conducted comprehensive scientific studies that greatly advanced understanding of Antarctic geology and meteorology. Mawson’s personal survival after losing two companions (Ninnes and Mertz) in crevasses became another legendary tale of human endurance in polar conditions.

Ernest Shackleton’s Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914-1917), while failing to achieve its goal of crossing Antarctica, became the most famous survival story in exploration history. When the expedition ship Endurance was crushed by pack ice, Shackleton led his crew through an epic 22-month struggle for survival that culminated in one of history’s greatest rescue operations. 

The Heroic Age established Antarctica as a testing ground for human endurance, technological innovation, and scientific inquiry. The expeditions of this era developed techniques for polar travel, cold-weather survival, and scientific research in extreme environments that would influence polar exploration for decades. The period also established the tradition of international scientific cooperation in Antarctica, as expeditions frequently shared information and resources despite national rivalries.

The scientific legacy of the Heroic Age was profound. These expeditions collected thousands of biological specimens, conducted the first systematic meteorological observations, and began the geological mapping of Antarctica. They established that Antarctica was indeed a continent rather than a collection of islands, determined its approximate size and shape, and began to understand its climate and environmental systems.

The Heroic Age also created the cultural mythology surrounding Antarctic exploration. The emphasis on heroism, sacrifice, and scientific dedication established Antarctica as a place where human character was tested and refined. This romantic vision of Antarctic exploration would influence public perception of the continent and support for Antarctic research throughout the 20th century.

Inter-War Period and Early Aviation

The period between the World Wars marked a transition in Antarctic exploration, characterized by the introduction of aviation, mechanized transport, and more sophisticated scientific equipment. This era saw the first flights over Antarctica, the establishment of permanent research stations, and the beginning of systematic aerial mapping that would revolutionize understanding of the continent’s geography.

Richard E. Byrd’s first Antarctic expedition (1928-1930) introduced aviation to Antarctic exploration on a large scale, following Australian explorer, Sir Hubert Wilkins pioneering flights over the Antarctic Peninsula in 1928. 

Byrd established Little America base on the Ross Ice Shelf and conducted the first flight over the South Pole on November 29, 1929. This achievement demonstrated aviation’s potential for Antarctic exploration and research, allowing rapid travel across vast distances that would take months to traverse on foot or by dog sledge. Byrd’s use of radio communication also established real-time contact with the outside world, transforming Antarctic expeditions from isolated ventures into globally connected operations.

The introduction of mechanized transport, including tractors and motor sledges, began to replace traditional dog teams and man-hauling techniques. While early mechanical vehicles often proved unreliable in extreme cold, they represented the beginning of technological solutions to polar transport challenges. The development of cold-weather engineering became a crucial aspect of Antarctic operations, driving innovations in materials science and mechanical design.

Scientific research during this period became more sophisticated and systematic. The second International Polar Year (1932-1933) involved coordinated with 44 countries participating, representing the first truly international scientific program in Antarctica. This cooperation demonstrated the value of coordinated research efforts and established precedents for the large-scale international scientific programs that would follow.

Aerial photography and mapping revolutionized geographical understanding of Antarctica. Systematic aerial surveys revealed the true extent of the continent, identified major mountain ranges and glaciers, and provided the first comprehensive view of Antarctica’s structure. 

The inter-war period also saw increased national interest in Antarctic territories. Several nations established territorial claims, leading to competing assertions of sovereignty that would eventually require international resolution. 

World War II and Strategic Interests

World War II significantly impacted Antarctic exploration and research, though direct military activities on the continent were limited. The war demonstrated Antarctica’s potential strategic importance while simultaneously disrupting most civilian research activities. Several nations recognized that Antarctic bases could serve important roles in global communications, weather forecasting, and potentially military operations.

Germany conducted a secret expedition to Antarctica in 1938-1939, claiming territory and establishing the basis for potential future activities. While German operations in Antarctica during the war were minimal, the expedition reflected the military’s growing interest in polar regions for strategic purposes.  The British conducted their own secret mission to Antarctica in World War II known as Operation Tabarin with the primary objective of establishing sovereignty over British claimed territory.  The British established a number of bases on the Antarctic Peninsula including the now famous Base A at Port Lockroy Island, now a regularly visited historic site conserved by the United Kingdom Antarctic Heritage Trust.

The United States Operation Highjump (1946-1947), led by Admiral Richard Byrd, was the largest Antarctic expedition ever undertaken, involving 13 ships, 23 aircraft, and over 4,700 personnel. While officially described as a research and training mission, Operation Highjump served important strategic purposes, establishing American presence in Antarctica and demonstrating the capability to conduct large-scale operations in polar conditions. The operation’s extensive aerial mapping and photographic surveys provided unprecedented documentation of Antarctic geography.

The post-war period saw renewed international interest in Antarctica, driven by both scientific opportunities and Cold War strategic considerations. The development of nuclear weapons and long-range delivery systems made Antarctica’s potential military significance apparent, while advances in technology made permanent research stations feasible.

The International Geophysical Year and Scientific Cooperation

The International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-1958 represents a watershed moment in Antarctic history, transforming the continent from a realm of national competition into a zone of international scientific cooperation with 67 countries participating in a comprehensive, scientific program including meteorology, oceanography, glaciology, geology, biology, and upper atmosphere physics. 

The IGY’s emphasis on free exchange of scientific information and international cooperation created a new model for Antarctic activities. Despite Cold War tensions, American and Soviet scientists worked together in Antarctica, demonstrating that scientific cooperation could transcend political differences. This cooperation established important precedents for the Antarctic Treaty negotiations that would follow.

The success of IGY scientific programs proved that Antarctica was an invaluable laboratory for understanding global environmental systems. Research conducted during the IGY established Antarctica’s central role in global climate regulation, ocean circulation, and atmospheric dynamics. 

Formation of the Antarctic Treaty System

The Antarctic Treaty, signed on December 1, 1959, and entering into force on June 23, 1961, represents one of the most successful international agreements in history. The treaty emerged from recognition that Antarctica’s unique characteristics—its lack of indigenous population, harsh environment, and scientific value—required special international governance arrangements.

The treaty negotiations involved the twelve nations that had been active in Antarctic research during the IGY: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The negotiations were complex, requiring resolution of competing territorial claims while establishing frameworks for future cooperation.  It is the flags of thesew twelve nations that fly at the Ceremonial South Pole.

The Antarctic Treaty’s key provisions fundamentally transformed Antarctica’s legal and political status. Article I established Antarctica as a zone dedicated to peaceful purposes, prohibiting military activities except in support of scientific research. Article II promoted international scientific cooperation and free exchange of research results. Article IV created a unique solution to territorial disputes by neither recognizing nor denying existing territorial claims while prohibiting new claims.

The treaty’s environmental provisions, while limited compared to later agreements, established important principles for Antarctic protection. The agreement required advance notification of expeditions and activities, promoted coordination to avoid duplication of effort, and established consultation procedures for addressing disputes.

The Antarctic Treaty System has expanded significantly since 1961 through additional protocols and agreements. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1991 and known as the Madrid Protocol, designated Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and science.” This protocol prohibited commercial mining, established comprehensive environmental impact assessment procedures, and created detailed regulations for waste management and wildlife protection.

The treaty system has proven remarkably durable and effective. Despite significant global political changes, including the end of the Cold War, the Antarctic Treaty has maintained its relevance and effectiveness. The system has successfully managed potential conflicts, promoted scientific cooperation, and protected Antarctic environments while allowing beneficial human activities to continue.

The Antarctic Treaty System’s success stems from several key factors: its focus on common interests rather than competing claims, its emphasis on science as a unifying force, and its flexibility in adapting to changing circumstances through additional protocols and agreements. The system has become a model for international cooperation in other regions, including outer space.

Modern Antarctic Science and Research

Contemporary Antarctic research has evolved into a sophisticated, internationally coordinated effort involving dozens of nations and addressing some of science’s most pressing questions. Modern Antarctic science encompasses climate research, biological studies, astronomy, glaciology, and numerous other disciplines, taking advantage of Antarctica’s unique characteristics as a natural laboratory.

Climate research represents perhaps the most significant area of modern Antarctic science. Ice core studies have revolutionized understanding of Earth’s climate history, providing detailed records of atmospheric composition, temperature, and precipitation patterns spanning hundreds of thousands of years. Antarctic ice cores have revealed information about past ice ages, volcanic eruptions, and atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations that is crucial for understanding current climate change.

The discovery and monitoring of the Antarctic ozone hole represents one of modern Antarctic science’s most important contributions to global environmental understanding. Research conducted at Antarctic stations detected the seasonal depletion of stratospheric ozone above Antarctica, leading to international action through the Montreal Protocol to reduce ozone-depleting substances. This research demonstrates Antarctica’s role as an early warning system for global environmental changes.

Antarctic biological research has revealed extraordinary adaptations to extreme conditions and has implications for understanding life’s limits and potential for existence in extreme environments elsewhere in the solar system. Studies of Antarctic organisms have contributed to biotechnology development, including the production of antifreeze proteins and cold-adapted enzymes.

Astronomical research has found Antarctica uniquely suitable for certain types of observations. The continent’s high altitude, dry atmosphere, and months-long darkness provide exceptional conditions for infrared and submillimeter astronomy. Telescopes at the South Pole have made significant contributions to cosmic microwave background research and neutrino detection.

Modern Antarctic research relies heavily on advanced technology and international cooperation. Satellite communication enables real-time data transmission and coordination between stations. Automated weather stations and remote sensing platforms extend research capabilities across the continent. International research programs coordinate activities among multiple nations, maximizing scientific return while minimizing environmental impact.

The logistics of modern Antarctic research have evolved dramatically from the Heroic Age. Large transport aircraft enable rapid personnel and cargo movement, while ice-strengthened research vessels provide sophisticated platforms for marine research. Modern research stations incorporate renewable energy systems, waste recycling, and environmental monitoring to minimize their environmental footprint.

Contemporary Antarctic research increasingly focuses on understanding Antarctica’s role in global systems, particularly climate and ocean circulation. Research on ice sheet dynamics is crucial for predicting sea level rise, while studies of Antarctic ocean currents contribute to understanding global climate regulation. 

Contemporary Challenges and Future Directions

Modern Antarctica faces numerous challenges that reflect broader global environmental and political issues. Climate change is affecting Antarctic ice sheets, ecosystems, and research infrastructure, while increasing human presence raises concerns about environmental impact. 

Climate change impacts on Antarctica are already observable and are accelerating. The Antarctic Peninsula has experienced some of the most rapid warming on Earth. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet shows signs of instability that could contribute significantly to sea level rise. 

Environmental protection remains a central challenge for Antarctic management. The Madrid Protocol provides comprehensive environmental protection frameworks, but implementation and enforcement across the continent’s vast expanse remains challenging. 

Tourism in Antarctica has grown from a few hundred visitors annually in the 1960s to over 120,000 in recent years. While tourism can promote conservation awareness and provide economic and logistical support for research activities, it also presents risks to pristine environments. Balancing tourism benefits with environmental protection requires ongoing monitoring and regulation.

Future Antarctic research will likely focus increasingly on understanding and predicting global climate change impacts. Advanced technologies including artificial intelligence, robotics, and remote sensing will enable more comprehensive and detailed studies while reducing human environmental impact. International cooperation will become increasingly important as research questions become more complex and global in scope.

Conclusion

The history of Antarctic exploration represents one of humanity’s greatest adventures in discovery, scientific advancement, and international cooperation. From Captain Cook’s unplanned circumnavigation to the sophisticated international research programs of today, Antarctica has challenged human capabilities while revealing fundamental truths about our planet and our place within it.

The evolution of Antarctic exploration reflects broader trends in human development: advancing technology, growing scientific understanding, and increasing recognition of global interconnectedness. Each phase of Antarctic history has contributed essential knowledge and experience that informs current activities and future planning.

The transformation from national competition to international cooperation stands as Antarctica’s greatest achievement. The Antarctic Treaty System demonstrates that nations can set aside territorial disputes and competitive interests to achieve common goals of scientific advancement and environmental protection. This cooperation has enabled scientific discoveries that benefit all humanity while preserving one of Earth’s last pristine wilderness areas.

Contemporary Antarctica faces unprecedented challenges as global climate change, increasing human presence, and resource pressures test the resilience of both natural ecosystems and governance systems. The lessons learned from over two centuries of Antarctic exploration—the importance of careful planning, international cooperation, environmental stewardship, and scientific rigor—provide essential guidance for meeting these challenges.

Antarctica’s future will depend on humanity’s ability to balance scientific advancement, environmental protection, and practical needs. The continent’s role as a global climate regulator, a unique biological laboratory, and a symbol of international cooperation makes its preservation essential for future generations. 

The story of Antarctic exploration continues to evolve, driven by new technologies, emerging scientific questions, and changing global conditions. Future explorers and researchers will build upon the legacy of those who came before, from the early sealers who first mapped Antarctic shores to the modern scientists who monitor global climate change. Antarctica remains a frontier for human knowledge and a testament to what can be achieved through courage, curiosity, and cooperation.